Ancient History of Nepal

Origin of Name "Nepal"

Regarding the origin of the word Nepal, various historians have put up their respective theories and reasons. The name "Nepal," which we use for our country, has been in use for a very long time. Nepal is referred to as an ancient land in numerous religious texts and epics. The creation of mountain ranges and valleys earlier than 13 billion years ago has increased their appeal to animals. Rampithekas' discovery of human fossils in western Nepal's Butwal region provided evidence that human habitation in Nepal before 1 billion years. It is discovered that the Atharva addition was the first to mention Nepal. Although the exact date of the Atharva addendum's formation is unknown, it is thought to have occurred between 500 and 600 BC. In this document Nepal has been described with the countries like kamaru, Videh, Udumber, Awanti and Kaikaya. It was said "Mountainous country", "Kirant country', 'kimpurush country' for the land whic is in mid Asia' in the lap of mid mountains and in between China and India.

The Basis of Naming Nepal

According to our history, our nation has been known as Nepal since prehistoric times. The name, which was well-known in antiquity, was expanded upon during the Lichchhavi period, and during the Malla period, it was decided to limit the use of the name Nepal to the Kathmandu valley and its surrounding region. Seniors (old folks) are currently calling Nepal to the Kathmandu Valley. Since Kathmandu was designated as the nation's capital following the country's unification, Nepal now refers to the entire state of Nepal. According to various languages, castes, lines of descent, religions, old epics, and documents, many explanations have been offered for the term Nepal's origin. Nepal's primary justifications and causes are as follows:

On the Basis of Language:

• Shasnkrit Language:
  • Scholars assert that because "Nip" means "valley" and "al" means "place" in the Shasnkrit language, Nepal was formerly known as the Kathmandu Valley. It is assumed that the word Nepal is created by joining the suffix Aal (place) and Nip (valley). As a linguistic descriptor, Nepal's name refers to a region of hills, like Himal and Panchal. Nip is a valley dweller in the vaidic language recorded in the Yajurveda. Nip is the word's root in Nepal. Nip is a type of Ashoka tree. As it is known as Shaiva for Shiva in Shasnkrit, Nepal is also known as Nayapal or Nepal.
• Newari Language:
  • When Nepal first became Nepal, it was solely known as "Nepa" in the Newari language. wherein "Ne" stands for "middle" and "Pa" for "country." Given that Nepal is situated in the mid-hill region, this name can be seen as significant. The last "L" in certain Newari words is silent. It is assumed to be "Nepa" of Nepal, exactly as "jhya" is for a window and "Pasa" is for a store.
• Kiranti Language:
  • In the Kiranti language, "Ne" denotes the middle and "Pa," the nation, denotes the middle. It is believed that Nepal was given its name by adding the prefix "La" to the name of the mid-hill region. The ancient Kiranti term "Nepa" has a cultural equivalent called Nepal. as stated in "The Nepal valley's linguistic archaeology An initial report "In the Bhot-Barmeli family of the Kiranti family, the words Ne (cattle) and Pa (human) are translated as "cattle grazing nation" later on in shasnkrit.
• Tibbati Language:
  • Ne is the word for house in Tibbati. Pal denotes wool. Because there was a sufficient amount of wool produced by sheep husbandry, Nepal began to be referred to as the "home of wool." Nepal is known as walyo by the Tibbatians and walpo by the Mangols. The people who live in Bhot refer to this country beyond the mountain as Paldesh or walpo.
• Tamang language:
  • The only member of this caste who once traded with Tibet later rose to prominence as a Tamang monk leader. Ne is the Tamang word for breast. Later, the leader was referred to as Parbat, and Nepal is known by the name of the same Parbat. Parbat used to initiate trade with Tibbet from the hill as a representation of the earth's breast.
• Limbu Language:
  • Nepal is the name of a plain in the Limbu language. In the middle of Nepal's hills is a large plain valley where Kathmandu is located. Based on this information, it is thought that the land was known as Nepal in Limbu.
• Lepcha Language:
  • Ne means holy and pa means cave in the Lepcha language. As a result, Nepal, a country with many caves and sacred sites, was given the name Nepa, which means a holy territory or religious location. For pilgrimages, the Nepalese tamang is also known as Ne. Ne is the Tibetan word for a holy site. Nepa Place is in the Khotang District.

On the Basis of the Castes:

• Caste of Narwa: 
  • The words Nepal and Newar share the same root, Nwarwa. Thomas Yangle and George Griyarsan, two European scholars, claimed that the Nwarwa caste sprang from the mixed blood of Tamang and Newar. Nepalese language therefore evolved from Nwarwa via Newa.
• Nip or Nep caste:
  • The founder of Simraungadh Nayadev traveled with the Malwar caste Newar who lived in Kerala in western India. After they arrived, it was given the name Nepal. Nip and Nepal were the ancient names for the Gopals of Nepal and their homes (Aalay). According to the researcher, the suffix Aalay was added to the term Nip to create Nepal. The eighth part of Panini and Vedic literature both contain the word "Nip."
• Kirant caste:
  • Nepar was a branch of this country's native Kirant caste. They formerly resided in the Kathmandu Valley, hence the name Nepal, which was altered. According to genealogy, the Kathmandu Valley was drenched in water, and Manjushree let the water out.

On the Basis of Genealogy:

• According to the story, Manjushree drained the water from the Kathmandu Valley, making it eligible for settlement. Following that, a saint by the name of Ne settled there, giving rise to the name Nepal.
• The demon Dansur filled Kathmandu with water, which was then exhausted by Lord Krishna. Ne saint then began the settlement, making Nepal what it is now thanks to the saint.
• In accordance with the linguistic history of the Nepal valley, Nagdah and Kalidah from the Nepali Mahatmya and Swayambhu Puran, respectively, were made ideal for settlement. Then, Ne Saint began settlement through his virtue and good deeds, and it spread to Nepal.
• As soon as Himwar Mairichi Saint Ne began to observe this region as instructed, Nepal began to be referred to as the Ne-observed land.
• Ne Muni noted it and it is documented in Chaturak Mahabharat, a work by Gajapati about Nepal.

On the Basis of Religion:

• Buddhist literature Sarbastibad and Binayasangrah provide descriptions of Nepal. The disciples of Buddha are said to have traveled to Nepal with traders.
• As a district, Nepal is referred to in the Mahabharata.
• The economics of the Kautilya (fourth century BC) and Jain writings both make reference to Nepal.
• In our Pauranic writings, Nepal is referred to as Satywati in the Satyyuga, Tapoban in the Tetrayuga, Muktisopan in the Dwaparyga, and Nepal in the Kaliyuga.

On the Basis of Ancient Texts and Records

• The name Nepal has been used in numerous old writings and archives. The Atharva Veda, the Economics of Kautilya, the Skandapurana, the Garudpurana, and the Barahpurana all contain references to Nepal. Tantrashastra as well as in many documents from the Lichchhavi era and the start of Samundragupta.
• The transitional period between the Vaidic and Pauranic eras is referred to in Bharmuni's writings as "Paundra Nepal Kashchaiv Antargivahigira."
• According to Swetambar community Jain literature, Jainmuni Bhadrabahu arrived in Nepal around 300 BC as a result of a famine in India.
• The meaning of a Nepali term has been mentioned in the Mastypurana, Smriti Sangrah, Barhaspatya Arthashastra, Vaiddhyashastra, Rajatrangini, chronicles of Udaydev, Patan, and Tistun.
• In Bhot, Nepal was known as Bayal or Waplo, and the Chinese traveler referred to it as Nipolo. Due to the substantial Kirant population, this location is referred to in Buddhist writings as Newal, Nipual, Nepaul, Nipal, and Nepal; Indians have also used Nepal.

Although there are various theories and bases for the word's derivation, no conclusive cause has yet been identified. There is no denying that Nepal was a sovereign nation from the start due to its typical civilisation, culture, and art.

Major Periods

History is the study, collecting, and documentation of the evolution of humanity and past human endeavors. The majority of what we learn about Nepalese history when we analyze it is based on conjecture, its development of civilization, and imagination, but some of the facts are proven. It is separated into three sections based on where humans first appeared.

Pre-historic Period

There are no written records describing the early stages of human civilisation, when people began to adopt human characteristics and abandon their animal natures. It is known as the pre-historical stage. Stone or paleolitic era refers to the period from the dawn of human civilization till pre-human civilization. It has been millions of years since humans first became civilized. Weapons used during the time and fossilized human remains are the main sources for this era. Based on archeological study and examination of prehistoric human tools and weaponry, the prehistoric period is split into the following categories:

• Paleolithic Age/Stone Age
  • Paleolithic age is the period from 20–25 lakh years ago up to 12,000 years ago. The early stages of human civilization are indicated by this. 99 percent of human history was created during this period. The ancient Stone Age is notable for the slow stages that humans took toward civilisation and development. In Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Udisa, Paleolithic fossils have been discovered.
• Meoslithic Age:
  • Meoslithic age is seen as the interval between the Paleolithic and Neolithic eras. The Meoslithic period is thought to have lasted between 12,000 and 10,000 years. However, the south Asian meoslithic period is recognized as spanning 12,000–4,000 years. People had advanced past the stone age, and their way of life had altered. As the temperature rose, people began to dwell in caves, raise animals, and grow crops like barley, wheat, and paddy.
  • There are also Meolithic artifacts in Nepal. In Dang, Meolithic people once resided. There are weapons that date back 10,000 years. The stone tools were discovered at Nawalparasi's Kot Tandi, which is thought to have been in use prior to 5000 BC.
• Neolithic Age:
  • Neolithic Age refers to the period after the end of the Stone and Mesolithic ages. In Asia, Europe, and Africa, this age begins and starts at different times. Neolithic age mainly refers to the time between 3500 BC and 1000 BC in South Asia. Neolithic fossils have been discovered in Kranatak, Uttar Pradesh, Kasmir, Jharkhand, Bihar, Bengal, and many locations in Nepal. It is assumed that the initial habitation has been discovered in Thakkhola Mustang Cave. Bardiya, Dang, Kapilvastu, Nawalparasi, and Kathmandu all include a variety of historical artifacts and artefacts.
  • The prehistoric period changed at the end of the nineteenth century. Prior to this, the existence of humans from the prehistoric era was not acknowledged. So, it wasn't seen as vital. Later, it became the focus of a detailed study of human civilization. Particularly prehistoric research reveals not only ancient human activity but also the identification of prehistoric civilization, division, environmental knowledge, relationships between culture and environment, and technological advancement. However, there is not enough study and research about Nepal's prehistoric era.

Ancient Nepal (From the beginning to 936 B.S.)

Although it is thought that the ancient era began thousands of years ago, there is no distinct history of Nepal before to the beginning of the AD. Before Kirants, no concrete sources have been discovered. The inscriptions from the Lichchhavi period contain some information on the political, social, and economic circumstances. Although it is thought that Lichchhavi time began from the beginning of AD, concrete evidence wasn't discovered until the fifth century AD. That information is not found for the beginning of the monarchical regime. To learn about our past, we must rely on the Puran, genealogy, and other holy texts. The following dynasties ruled over Nepal in antiquity based on available resources.

• Gopal Dynasty
  • According to the genealogy, the Gopal Dynasty kings were Nepal's first monarchs. Kathmandu Valley was known as Nagdah in ancient times when it was covered with water. According to Hindu literature, during the Dwapara Yuga, Lord Krishna and the Gopals arrived in the Kathmandu Valley. And depending on your choice of ancestor, either Krishna or Manjushree exhaled the valley's water. After throwing the water from the valley, it was suitable for the colony. Due to the valley's dry climate, it was now possible to grow grass and other crops there as well as raise animals, which led to the settlement of animal-rearing people. The shepherd from the south-west arrived in the valley at that point and settled. The first people to come here were shepherds who raised cows, and they soon established control. who raised cows and were known as Gopals. Then the Nip community Gopals of the south were drawn hither, and Nepal was given their name. There was a conflict between the Gopals, who arrived from the south, and the ancient Naga society here. After the Nagas lost the conflict and retreated to the south, the Gopals established their dominance in the Nepal valley. Their ancestors had a cow named Bahuhri that provided milk every day near the banks of the Bagmati River, according to their historical chronicles. The Jyotirlinga was later discovered when this location was excavated, and they were able to locate Lord Pashupatinath, the principal Hindu deity. Some members of the Newar community in Kritipur, Balambu, Thankot, Tistung, and Palun continue to use the surname "Gopali" and claim to be descendants of the Gopals. The Gopals were regarded as the pioneers of human civilization in this sense.
  • The holy monk Ne made Bhuktaman (Bhumigupta) of Gopals king after performing penance on Teku. He was the first king of Nepal in addition to being the creator of the Gopal dynasty. There is no consistency in the length of control of the rulers of this dynasty, however according to Right Genealogy, Nepal was ruled by the eight Gopal monarchs for roughly 521 years: Bhumigupta, Jayagupta, Dharmagupta, Harshagupta, Bhimgupta, Manigupta, Vishnugupta, and Yakshagupta. However, Gopal Genealogy claims that the ruled over Nepal for 505 years. Bar Shingh of the Mahishpal Dynasty traveled from India to take the throne because the previous monarch Yakshagupta was childless.

                The Gopal Rulers and Their Tenure

Source: Right Genealogy

• Mahishpal Dynasty
  • According to historians, those who raised cows were known as Gopals, whereas those who raised buffaloes were known as Mahishpal or Aabhir. However, it is assumed that Gopals and Mahishpals share a common ancestor and that their differences in profession result from this. Aabhirs were also Gwala, according to the records of Krikpatrik, and they were raising buffalos with enough weaponry between the plains of Janakpur and Simraunghad. Later, they entered the Kathmandu valley, where they overthrew the Gopals and established authority. A battle took place between a cow shepherd and a buffalo shepherd, and eventually the buffalo shepherd triumphed and began to dominate. According to the Gopal dynasty genealogy, the Mahishpal took control of Nepal's government after defeating Yakshagupta, the last member of the Gopal dynasty. Barshingh is the dynasty's first ruler. Mahishpal Dynasty reigned Nepal for 161 years and two months, according to Gopal genealogy. There was no discernible difference between the Gopal and Mahishpal dynasties' systems of government, and no noteworthy occurrences from that period have yet to be discovered.

      The Mahishpal Rulers and Their Tenure

• Kirant Dynasty
  • By overthrowing the final Mahishpal king Bhuwanshingh, the Kirants King Yalung or Yalamber took control of Nepal's government. The Kirants controlled Nepal between the time before the Lichchhavi dynasty and after the Mahishpal or Aabhir, according to literary sources. The list of Kiranti monarchs can be found in Gopal genealogy, along with information about their origins as a region between Tamakoshi and Sunkoshi. This occurrence is thought to have occurred at the conclusion of the Dwapar Yuga and the start of the Kaliyuga in the sixth century.
  • From Yalamber, the Kirants have ruled. They still hold control over the eastern and Kathmandu Valley regions. Social organizations were also founded at this period for common use. At this point, the monarchial system was established. At this time, the courts and the judicial stations had already been founded. The trade with India also helped Nepal become more well-known abroad. Agriculture had advanced, and animal husbandry had as well. In the south Terai region of Nepal, where the Kirant kingdom was located in the hilly region of Nepal, Lichchhavi, Brijik, Shakya, Koli, Malla, and other kingdoms were already established. The Kirants had unsurpassed skill with a bow and arrow. The Kirantis monarchs were just, honest, and nature lovers.
  • The Kirant kings of Nepal were the beginning of history. Depending on the genealogy, the name and reign of Kirant rulers vary. In the Gopal genealogy, it is mentioned that 32 kirant rulers ruled for 1701 years, 28 kings ruled for 1741 years in the Lingual genealogy, and 27 kings ruled for 1630 years in the Krikpatrik genealogy. Similar information about 29 kings may be found in the Right genealogy.
  • Famous Kirantis Kings:
    • Yalamber:
      • Yalamber established the Kirant dynasty as its first monarch. In some of the records, he goes by the name Yulung. By defeating Mahishapal ruler Bhuwanshingh, he had founded the Kirant kingdom. It is assumed that he founded his kingdom earlier than 700 BC. According to popular belief, Patan's previous name was Yala.
    • Humati:
      • He was the sixth king of the Kiranti. His name is Humati, according to the Gopal genealogy. According to Daneal Right's genealogy, he presided over the Mahabharat War as king.
    • Jitedasti:
      • Jitedasti is a significant king from the Kiranti nation. In the Lingual genealogy, he is the seventh king, and a few steps later in the Gopal genealogy. It is thought that Gautam Buddha visited Kathmandu and converted a disciple there. However, Gautam Buddha himself did not visit Kathmandu, and his follower Ananda only came to promote Buddhism.
    • Sthunko:
      • According to some genealogies, during the reign of Sthunko, Charumati, the daughter of Maurya Emperor Ashok, traveled to Kathmandu. He constructed Charstupa. He arranged Charmati's marriage to Chhetriya prince Devpal. But this genealogy claim didn't seem to be accurate. Ashoka had only traveled to Lumbini and Kapilvastu. It is not established that he arrived in Kathmandu.

       Namelist of Kirant Kings

• The Lichchhavi Period
  • Establishment of Lichchhavi Regime:
    • After Kirants, it is discovered that Lichchhavi ruled in Nepal. Regarding the Lichchhavi dynasty's founder, there is no consistency. The Suryabanshi chhetris won the Kirants and established the new governmental structure, according to the genealogy and Puran. The influence of Suryabanshi on the Kirants kings caused the Lichchhavi dynasty to begin defeating them, according to Gopal genealogy. Furthermore, according to Pashupati Puran, "the Baishali's husbands initiated the reigning order by impressing through speech or conquering the Kirants in combat." The same kind of background can be found in Himalkhanda. where Baishali's husband won the kirants and began to rule Nepal. In this manner, Lichchhavi's dominion began following the Kirants. The Lichchhavi ruled in Nepali defeating the last Kiranti king 'Khigu' in Gopal genealogy, 'Galij' in lingual genealogy, 'Gasti' in Right genealogy.
    • The Changu inscription by King Mandev in 464 AD, in which the descriptions were given to the generation preceding Mandev, is the first acknowledged inscription discovered under Lichchhavi dominion. Then, in the Pashupati inscription of the Lichchhavi king Jayadev from the eighth century, it is written about Lichchhavi kings from the very beginning. According to this family tree, King Mandev, who founded the Chnagu inscription in 464 AD, is regarded as the 39th king. If the average reign of each monarch is taken to be 20 years, then the Lichchhavi dynasty began in Nepal 760 years ago, or in 296 BC.

Famous Lichchhavis Kings:

Lichchhavis are typically regarded as Suryabanshi. It is thought that the Suryabanshi of Ayodhya Dasharath is a Lichchhavi king from the seventh generation. Around 40 kings ruled Nepal for 800 years during the Lichchhavi period, including Susupta, Jayadev the first, Haridutta Varma, Vrishdev, Shsnkardev, Dharmadev, Mandev the first, Mahidev, Santadev, Basantadev, Udaydev, Mandev second, Shivadev the first, Anshuvarma, Narendradev, Jayadev the second, Shivadev the second, and Jayadev the These were a few of them:

• Supuspa
  • Susupta is regarded as the Lichchhavi dynasty's founder or early member. According to the "Utkirna Genealogy" created by Jayadev Second at the Pashupatinath temple, King Susupta admired Kamdev's appearance. People like Pashupushpavarma in lingual genealogy, Pashuprekhdev in right genealogy, and Susuptadev in Gopal genealogy. He established Nepal's Varna system, constructed Pashupatinath's Deval and its roof, made the city attractive, oversaw the state's portfolio, and ensured that everyone received justice, according to Gopal Genealogy. Aside from this, he was in charge of the pashupati temple's golden ceiling and pinnacle, which he managed to make opulent and lovely in accordance with right genealogy. Additionally, king Susupta classified the land system in the Gopal genealogy.
• Mandev First (Tenure 521-562BS/464-505AD)
  • Son of King Dharmadev and Queen Styawati, Mandev. There were two monarchs with the name Mandev; the first is referred to as Mandev, and the second is Mandev. After the passing of his father Dharmadev, Mandev ascended to the throne at the age of adolescent. Because he was adept at running a government, Nepal emerged into a more organized, powerful nation during his reign. Mandev was a courageous, intrepid, noble, helpful, art enthusiast, and a devout monarch in the beginning.
  • Because he was a wise king who treated the populace as members of his own family, he was able to oversee economic growth and keep the peace for 41 years (521 BC–562 BC). He not only created the coin but also art and education during his lifetime. During his reign, Nepal's first royal palace, stately structure, and the first coin with the Shree Mananka and Shree Bhogini stamps were were introduced. His sphere of influence reached the Himalayas in the north, the Koshi in the east, and Gandaki (across the Kali Gandaki, Mallapuri). Free writing and inscriptions date back to his era. It is accepted that the inscription of Jayaburma of Maligau of 163 BC is the first ancient certified inscription than Mandev Nripa's inscription of changunarayan 521 BS (464 AD). The achievements of good politian, breve commander, liberal king who ruled for 41 years are as follows:
    • Mangriha's construction: Work on the magnificent royal structure Mangriha.
    • Building of Manbihar: Mandev's liberal sentiments led to the construction of Manbihar. He built Manbihar and the other five Bihars in accordance with Hindu and Bauddha religious traditions.
    • Shaiva and Vishnu statues were built by Mandev, who also built the Tilganga in the Pashupati region, the Tribikram Baman monument in Lajimpat, and the Shivalinga in Budhanilkantha.
    • Shree Manank and Shree Bhogini imprinted the first coin that was used during his period, which was published.
    • Education, literature, and trade advancements: His history was deemed to be extremely clear and reliable for his day, earning him the title of the first certified king. He lived at a time of peace, stability, economic success, and advancement in both the arts and education.
    • According to this theory, the official history dates back to the sixth century BS. following the reign of Mandev Mahidev, Basantadev, etc. As Kinf Basantaqdeev became older, Ministers Ravigupta and Kramalil gained in influence. Between 536 and 545 AD, there was political instability due to coalition rule and frequent shift. Following this, Bhaumgupta, Ganadev, Gangadev, and Shivadev were among the courtiers who engaged in a power struggle. With the aid of his nephew Amshuvarma, Shivadev expanded his influence, but he later become passive as Amshuvarma's dominance grew. Amshuvarma was consequently crowned king. It was the first instance in which the minister usurped royal authority.
• Amshuvarma (Projected regime 622-678 BS/ 605-621 AD)
  • King Shivadev's first close relative was Amshuvarma (nephew or son in law). Amshuvarma obtained the Mahasamanta title and was enthroned as an heir by marrying the daughter of king Shivadev first, according to the genealogy. He is the first king in history to adopt the term "his majesty." Not only did agriculture, animal husbandry, and trade flourish under his rule, but also foreign relations and defense. He constructed the laudable and creative Kailashkut Bhawan. China's and Tibbet's foreign relations were enhanced. Harshabardan in India and Sranchangampo in Tibet had developed into formidable states at the time, and he maintained good relations with both of them. He organized the still-famous wedding of his daughter Bhrikuti to Sranchangampo. People gained religious freedom and self-government under his reign. The advancement of art and knowledge allowed for the organization and prosperity of human life (education). He received His Majesty's first prize for ruler as a result of this entire progress. During his reign, the official announcement of the heir (prince) also occurred. As a Hindu ruler, he adopted the title "Pashupatipadanugrihit." Despite being a Hindu ruler, Amshuvarma had a significant influence on the growth of the Buddhism faith. He thought that people should act like sons. The king who always thought of 'Prajahit Samadhantatpar' and 'Katham Me Praja Sukhina Bhaweta' or how my people would be happy, and prepared the 'Shabda Vidhya' (byakaran). In short there was all round development during his 16 years tenure. He died around 678 BS. After his death the son of Shivadev first Udaydev became king.
• Narendradev
  • A well-known ruler of the Lichchhavi period was Narendradev. He was prince Udaydev's son and the grandson of Shivdev I. He regained his lost ancestral realm alongside the Tibetan ruler Shrongchong Gampo. Along with the trading ties that were developed with Bote (Tibet and China) under the rule of Narendra Dev from 645 to 679 A.D., Nepal also briefly served as the hub of world trade at this time. In addition to assuming the title of Maharajadhiraj/Majestic, Narendradev also gained the notoriety of "Param Bhattarak." He also constructed the palace of Bhadradhiva. Because of the shape of the lion's seat, the 'throne' is thought to be "Simhaasan." The elimination of the duel system, which had been in place since Basantadev's reign, and the growth and ties with other nations like Tibet, China, Assam, etc. are two of King Narendradev's most significant accomplishments. He enhanced local government, public works, foreign relations, and erected several water taps and Pati Pauwas in the Pashupati district.
• Jayadev II
  • In addition to being a poet, Jayadev II (713–723) also had grandiose plans to extend the nation, which is why his activities during the reign of the Lichchhavi monarchs is noteworthy. In addition to the moniker "Kabiraj," he was also known by the epithet "Parchakrakam" (the desire to conquer another nation). In the Pashupati inscription, his poetry is mentioned. The following is a list of the advancements made by Jaydev II:
    • Religious Reforms: As a devotee of Pashupatinath, he offered Astadal Kamal, a structure consisting of eight silver plates with a gold ring in the center for the Keshar. Jayadev is referred to as "Aaprahitdharmasashan" in Baneshwor's record or inscription, hence it is assumed that he performed deeds of righteousness based on religion. In the Pashupati archives, he had composed some fine Sanskrit poetry.
    • Economic reforms: He increased irrigation systems, made an effort to modernize agriculture sector output, and increased trade with China and Tibet.
    • Judicial reforms: According to the inscriptions of Gyaneshwor and Naxal Narayanchaur, the judicial system had started to take on different shapes in an effort to promote harmony among the Panchalis.
      • The law required that, out of the compensation collected, one part out of six be kept in the fund of Panchali and the remaining five parts be submitted to the national fund, according to the written questions and the specifics of the work, in accordance with the penal punishment declared by Panchali.
      • If the defendant disagrees with the decisions made by Panchali, there is also a plan to make a complaint in the King's Inner Verdict (inter session), and the issue would be determined within a month of the complaint.
    • The social reforms: The local village Panchalis were granted the authority to resolve all types of disputes, putting an end to dual control at the center and society on the road to progress. They established specific norms for the communities interested in various vocations in accordance with Lichchhavi tradition.

The End of Ancient Period:

After Jayadev II's passing in 790 B.S., Nepal's 147-year history is unclear. The 147 years following Jayadev II's demise are referred to as the "Dark Age." The ancient era of Nepal's history comes to an end at the same moment.

Political Situation

The conventional monarchical form of government has been superseded by the Lichchhavi. The king held the most sway during the reign. A cabinet was set up in the country's central government to support the king. Former titles of the king include Nripati, Rajan, Bhattarak, Rajadhiraj, and Maharajadhiraja. After the king, Yuvraj occupied the space. Amatya (minister), feudal (high staff), Mahasamanta (head of the king's staff), Mahapratihar (secretary of the king), etc. were some of the other royal officers created. When the monarch was incapable of ruling, other individuals took over. Double rule was the name given to such a system. The titles of local, Mahasamanta, distant, etc. were used to distinguish the feudal lords.The democratic ideals were upheld by every linguistic tyrant for the benefit of the populace. The Lichchhavi government frequently used assistant rulers, joint rulers, feudal rulers, yuvraj, etc. To assist the king, a commission of nobles was established. The courts of Antarasan and Paramasan (court) were set up inside the palace for the central administration. The commander in chief was known as Mahabaladakshya, and the army chief was known as the Baladakshya. Even the judge and police commissioner went by the name Sarbadandanayak. Since it was not usual to pay government workers in cash, it was common practice to assign land as a Jagir, or stipend.

According to the administrative division, it was split into gram (village), pur (province), tal (terrain), drong (market), subject (district), feudal area, etc. from bottom to top. In some regions of the state, feudal lords held power, while in others, the central had direct control. Panchayats, or panchalis, were established to handle local level government. A person may complain to the king's court if they do not agree with the decision that the village Panchali made. As prescribed by Hindu texts, the offenders received a variety of penalties. The punishments were severe. For instance, there were provisions for reprimand (admonishment), dishonor (Dhik- Danda), asset punishment (capital punishment), and death penalty.

Positions of Lichachhivi Period

• Mahapratihar: Head to look the Palace (King's Secretary)
• Pratihar: Official who looks after the palace
• Dandanayak: Authorized person to look into law and order and justice
• Ambassadors: To disseminate the proclamation
• Mahabaladakshya: General of the Army
• Brat: Person who does agriculture, forestry, irrigation, trade
• Dharmadhikar: Person who looks after religious matters

Offices of Lichchhavi Period:

• Purbadhikar: Administration of East
• Paschhimadhikar: Administration of the West
• Mapchowk: Marriage, divorce and remarriage
• Adhikaran: Tax administration

Financial Condition/Economic Status

Since the Lichchhavi period is regarded as the "golden age," it is obvious that Nepalese civilization was affluent and developing throughout this time. According to historical inscriptions, Chinese histories, and pertinent sources, the primary pillars of economic existence were agriculture, animal husbandry, industry, trade, taxation, wages, etc.

During the Lichchhavi era, the people's primary industries were agriculture and trade. Water tax and Bhagakar (a tax on agricultural) revenue were once collected by the state. Domestic industries and businesses, such as cattle farming, were also successfully established. According to the Bungmati inscription, King Anshuvarma built therapeutic veterinarians to advance the livestock industry.

It was rumored that groups of Nepalese traders will trade with Sri Lanka and India. A similar group of traders was known as "saartha." Sarthwa was the name of the business team's leader. Nepal exported kitchenware, jewels, herbs, and Radi Pakhi. In transactions, a better system of measurement was created. The term "Manik" was used to describe a Muri's size ( equals to 20 Pathi). It is believed that the Lichachhivi economy is very strong.

The populace was wealthy. They could afford to pay taxes. Taxes were once collected at the Kuther home. The state's revenue was mostly derived from its tax system. The most common taxes include "Bhagkar," a tax on agriculture, "Bhogkar," a tax on livestock farming, and "customs tax," a tax on commercial trade. Other common taxes include "Sinker," a tax on wood, "Chailkar," a tax on textile production, "Telkar," a tax on oil production, "Aapandkar," a tax on shops, "Palandukar," a tax on farms, and numerous taxes on The procedure for collecting taxes was extremely rational and fair. The main sources of income during the Lichchhavi era were feudal taxes and fines from various lawsuits.

Social Cultural Life

The Lichchhavi era absorbed the usual civilisation and culture of Nepal. Religious tolerance allowed for the preservation of social harmony while spreading a sense of religious harmony. The Hindu and Buddhist religions were seen similarly by the culture. The rulers of the time upheld the lofty ideals and beautiful traditions of "Sarvadharma Samata" and "Sarvadharma Samnwaya" by presenting the world with a model of a liberal society. There was no discrimination in Buddhism as long as the attitude of harmony between the Baishnava, Shaiva, and Shakta sects of Hinduism was upheld.

The Purana myths list thirty Korore deities, including Brahma, Bishnu, Maheshwar, Surya, Saraswati, Ganesh, Buddha, etc. In this sense, Nepali culture may be characterized by the preservation of the variety of religions practiced there. The geographical setting and surrounding environment have significantly influenced the locals' development of their ethos, ideas, values, and beliefs. The conflict-inspired concept was not given much weight in Lichchhavi society. With lofty ideals of mutual coexistence and congruent beliefs, the legacy of religious tolerance and coordination was wonderful.

The evidence that Hindu culture contributed to the advancement of Buddhist culture demonstrates that Nepal was a multi-cultural state beginning in the Lichchavi era. The act of Rajyabati, the mother of Mandev, in which she concentrated on good governance and denied for Sati in the death of her husband because her son was an infant, which can be taken as a glorious Nepali political culture, is justified as a shining example of the Nepali culture that service to the country and nation is more important than religion.

In order to make the society progressive, brilliant, and successful, education for women must be provided alongside education for males. King Mandev did this by arranging for some women to receive an education through his daughter, which is recognized as the culture of education. On the one hand, Amshubarma introduced the greatness of diplomacy to the nation's security issues and brought the glorious culture of politics. He also improved the currency and increased the nation's industry and trade, demonstrating his identity as an administration of excellence and liberalization. Jayadev II also carried on the political culture. It is not an exaggeration to say that the golden age of Lichchhavi culture was of the highest quality, because of the brightness and shine of the society by bringing a golden morning to the personality of people and development of humanity in every field of every culture.

Medieval History of Nepal

Major Periods

Pre-medieval Age

It has also been discovered that the rule of Bijaya Dev, who succeeded Jayadev II and is listed as his successor in the records, has persisted in Nepal in specific ways. Gunakamadev, Manaradev III, Baliraj, Baldev, Mandev IV, and Raghavadev are identified as the rulers after Bijayadev in the general, handwritten book of records.

Gunakamadev:

Gunkamadev is thought to have controlled the Kathmandu valley in accordance with the 2 inscriptions during 987-990 A.D. His reign lasted 18 years, claims historian Kirkpatrick. Additionally, he constructed the copper roof, Sattal, and Sundhara at the Ishaneshwor temple within the Pashupatinath temple complex, as well as the statue of Umameshwar. He also constructed Marusattal, Kasthamandap, and Maruhiti.

Medieval Period (from 937 to 1825 B.S.)

The "Middle Ages" in Nepal's history are thought to have started on the day of Kartik Shukla Pratipada (Govardhan Puja and Mahapuja celebration of the Newari society) in 937 B.S. (October 29, 879), with the start of "Nepal Samvat." King Raghadev was in power during that time. The genealogy states that Shankadhar Shakhwa, a resident of Kantipur, began Nepal Samvat on that day by forgiving the ordinary people's debts in the name of Pashupatinath. In Nepalese history, the time from 937 to the unification of Nepal in 1825, the end of the Lichahhivi period, and roughly 900 years before the fall of Malla, is referred to as the medieval period. In Nepal, the medieval era is actually referred to as "Mallakal." During some of this era's centuries, Nepal was as big as it was during the Lichchhavi era, but subsequently, there were a number of minor autonomous republics in position. There have been several attempts at integration and extension. As a result, it is discovered that the geographic position of medieval Nepal is occasionally unified, occasionally divided, occasionally enlarged, and occasionally compressed.

The Pre-Middle Ages and the Post-Middle Ages are the two periods of medieval Nepalese history that followed the early ages. When the old lichchhavi period central rule was weakened during Nepal's historic medieval era, the feudal lords of that era gained control of the center and established three potent states (Doy, Khas and Malla).

Rise of Three Kingdoms/Tri-powers

After the grip of the center loosened as a result of shared administration, feudal fights within themselves, and royal plots, the process of establishing separate nations started. As a result, when the Khasiya Mall Dynasty in Jumla, the Karnatak Dynasty in Simrungarh, and Malla and Dev founded two Malla Dynasties named Tripur and Yuthuneyam in the Nepal Mandal, there were three potent states in the country. In the south-east Terai, Tirahut Doya Kingdoms existed, and in the west and center of Nepal, the Khas Malla kingdom and the Malla state, respectively. Thus, the rise of the Tri-powers is the term used to describe the three powerful states. Arriving in the latter half of the middle ages, Nepal again became fragmented and the smaller states of Baise, Chubisi etc. formed. Here is the introduction of the three kingdoms/Tri-powers.

• Doya (Karnataka) Kingdom
  • Simra-Bangad was the prehistoric name for Simroungadh in the Bara district of state no. 2's Narayani zone. For security purposes, all of the large settlements during the time were turned into forts. These forts have even been constructed in the middle of a forest. The names of the forts in the forest were "Bangadh" or "Bandurga." The fort's construction site's forest was well known for having the same name. This is as a result of the "Simara-Bangadh" Gadarup village in the Simara forest. Later, this word was changed to Simroungadh. Simroungadh's immediate surroundings were collectively referred to as Tirhut. The Kathmandu valley's modern documentation refers to this region as "Doyarajya." After the establishment of the Khas state in the west, the Doya (Tirhut) state of Karnataka was found to be located in the south and east of the Terai.
  • Simroungadh, also known as Simara, served as the nation's capital. Simroungadh was surrounded by high walls and seven deep water pits for the purpose of protecting the state's capital. The labyrinth-like entrance to the fort was achieved via rotating and perplexing routes. To reach the palace, it will take around a month to navigate the convergence of roads, according to the investigators. King Nanyadev, who originated from the Karnataka area of southern India, founded the Karnataka State at Tirhut in 1154 B.S. (1097 A.D) This sovereign nation has existed for around 229 years and is believed to have been dissolved in 1326 A.D.
  • The Chalukya of southern India were led by Nanyadev as their commander. When the Chalukyas began a conquest expedition in northern India, Nanyadev arrived here. Simrungarh was afterwards constructed as the hub and created a state in this region. Following Nanyadeva, Simrungarh was ruled by individuals such as Gangadev, Narsinghdev, Ramsimhadev, Shaktisimhadev, Bhupalsimhadev, and Harisimhadev. Nanyadev and Harisimhadev held sway over this state as its chief tyrants. Karnataka's current government is led by Harisinhdev. Muslim Emperor Gayasuddin Tughluq of Delhi had conquered and destroyed the realm during his rule. The Kuldevi of the Karnat kings is Tulaja Bhavani, who is revered as the Kuldevi of the Malla rulers of the valley. The Kalash of Tulaja Bhavani was introduced to the valley by Deball Devi, the queen of Harisimhadev, who arrived there as a refugee. Karnataka's influence was evident in the valley once Devladevi and her son Jagatsimha arrived, which was only natural. When Harisinhdev passed away, Rudra Malla and Ari Malla shared power in the valley. The apathetic leader was Ari Malla. After Rudra Malla passed away, Harisimhadev provided shelter in his palace for his queen Devladevi and son Jagatsimha. Devladevi kept the Kalash of Taleju brought along with her in the palace. Later, the rulers of Nepal also became worshipers of the Taleju. Devaldevi's son Kumar Jagatsimha was married to Malla princess Nayakdevi and from this couple Rajalladevi was born. Then Rajalladevi married to Jayasthiti Malla.
• Khas (Malla) Kingdom:
  • In addition to Nuwakot in the east, Kedar in the west, Tibet in the north, and Terai in the south, Khas Malla state was expanded. The Mallawar of Kailali Kanchanpur served as the entrance of the Khas Malla state. The power of this empire extended to areas of Tibet. The Khas Empire covered a sizable portion of what was then Nepal, extending from Kumaon, Garhwal, in the west to the Gorkha River, in the east. Sinja served as the Khas kingdom's capital. Around 1150 AD, Nagaraj, who arrived from the Gulf of Tibet in the eighth century BC, is thought to have founded an independent Khas state in the state of Karnali (1207 B.S). Gopala Bamshabali's Nag Tibetan Genealogy, the Dullu inscription from 1414 B.S.. The rulers of this state are Nagraj, Krachal, Ashok Chal, Jitari Malla, Ripu Malla, Aditya Malla, Punya Malla and Prithvi Malla. The state has been in existence for about 226 years. The most major and important contribution of the Western Khas state is the contribution about language. The present Nepali language was originated in the Khas Malla State. Therefore, this language is also called 'Khaskura' or 'Sinjali language'. This language was constantly modified and developed as the Khas Malla kings gave this language as the medium of kingship and the official language. This language was widely used even in the Twenty-Two/ Baise and Twenty-four/Chaubesi states that arose after the disintegration of the Khas Malla. This language became the state language in those states, and after the unification of the vast Nepal, the language became the national language of Nepal.
  • Fall of the Khas/Malla State
    • The state's extensive rugged and hilly topography prevented the center from having complete control over the area. The state was later divided in 1430, and following Abhaya Malla in 1433, it was completely destroyed. After Abhay Malla, the local feudal took control of the throne from the Malla clan. In the far west, twenty-two states were created after the collapse of the Khas state, including Bajhang, Doti, and Jajarkot. This region, which is now seen as being the least advanced and developed, used to be a highly strong state.
• Malla Kingdoms of Kathmandu Valley: Introduction to Malla Dynasty:
  • The Nepal Valley is thought to have been under Malla dominion since the start of the thirteenth century. Additionally, Ari Malla is thought to have been this dynasty's initial ruler. Even before Ari Malla, the Mallas were involved in the rule. The Gopal family tree and even some inscriptions now serve as proof that the Mallas were involved in governing in some capacity well over a century before Ari Malla. The Mallas are a historically significant caste. Mallas are referred to as special class Chhetris in ancient Sanskrit scriptures. The Mahabharata, various Buddhist writings, Manusmriti, and other Puranas all make mention of the Mallas.There is discussion of the Mallas, who are comparable to the Kosalas, in the Mahabharata. Mallas are related to Mithila's Bideha in the Markandeya Purana. Many ancient dynasties that had ruled structured republics in the fifth and sixth centuries BC fell victim to the rise of empires administered by monarchies as they made their way slowly into Nepal, as evidenced by numerous examples from various historical sources. Lichchwei, Koliya, Sakya, Malla, and other refugees all arrived in Nepal. The Koliyas resided in Kantipur (current-day Kel Tole), while the Sakyas lived in the Lalitpur region. Similar findings indicate that Malls initially settled in the Gandaki region before moving on to the valley.

Arrival of Mallas into Nepal:

Digbijaya the Lichichhivi of Vaisali fled northern India due to the hidden emperor of Magadha since they couldn't survive there and arrived in the Kathmandu valley. Like the Lichchhivis of Vaishali, the Mallas fled to the Gandaki area of Nepal from Kushinagar and its surroundings in India. Since Rajaldev and Kathya Malla founded Champagiri (Chapagaon), a settlement south of Lalitpur, it is clear that the Mallas appear to have tried to increase their political clout in Kathmandu. Mandevs' invasion of the Malla Kingdoms was primarily intended to quell the latter's ambitions.The desires of the Mallas to control the center grew as the Lichchhivi rule in the center began to wane. Aridev (Ari) Malla was successful in this. Aridev, who was born in 1210 B.C., became king in 1254 B.C., reigned for 15 years, and then passed away in 1274 B.C. In 1274 B.S., Abhay Malla succeeded Ari Malla as king. He was in power for 38 years.

Famous Malla Kings of the Valley

• Jayasthiti Malla
  • Jayasthiti Malla is regarded as one of the most popular socialist monarch in the history of Malla period. After the marriage of Malla princess, Rajaldevi, Jayalasthi Malla came to power. Some historians consider Jayasthi Malla to be a descendant of Harisinhdev, of Karnat geneology, some of them regard him as the descendants of Khas Malla who ruled in the Karnali state, while some argue that their descendants are the descendants of a Malla king within the Nepal Mandal. However, he seems to have a connection with the dynasty. After the marriage, Jayalasthi Malla continued to hold the government and imprisoned the then King Jayarjundev from 1437 to 1452 B.S. After the death of Jayasthi Malla, his sons Jyoti Malla and grandson Yaksha Malla ruled respectively. During his reign, he created many corrective policy rules and also inspired the general public to follow them. Therefore, he has been known as the reformist king in the history of Nepal. The regimes he created can be seen in some modifications in today's Nepali society. His corrective policies can be summarized as follows:
  • Social Improvement
    • He divided Nepali society, which was previously divided into 4 castes and 18 sub-castes under Lichichhivi hegemony, into 4 castes and 36 sub-castes. He separated the caste according to occupation. Plans were formed for Shudras to provide service, Chhetris to get royalty, Baishya to engage in trade, and Brahmins to perform worship. Caste began to develop through time as a result of the occupation being split based on caste, which began at birth.
    • If a man from a high caste marries a woman from a low caste, he should drop his last name and take on the woman's rank.
    • When cutting the meat, the butcher must be clad in a long sleeved shirt.
    • He started the tradition of mourning the death of Royal family with Deepak Raga and other castes by Kahal Raag.
  • Religious Reform:
    • He ruled the realm of spiritual concepts. Many temples and monasteries were constructed under his rule. He erected the Love and Kush idol in the Ram temple at the Pashupatinath temple complex, which is situated on the bank of the Bagmati River, in honor of his wife. He also constructed several idols for the Patan Palace. He established a fund for Gorakhnath's defense and upkeep.
  • Educational Reform:
    • Sanskrit was adopted as the primary language of instruction throughout his reign, and the royal priest was required to perform his duties in Sanskrit. The Sanskrit translation of the Ramayana was given to the populace under the name Bhairav Bandana.
  • Economic Reform:
    • By imposing financial penalties for minor errors, he also significantly contributed to the decrease in crime. He fined the crooks rather than throwing them in jail. In two ways, the state has benefited from this. On the one hand, prison costs were reduced, while on the other, financial penalties raised money. He used the measuring system, dividing the land into the following four sections based on its potential for production: Aabal, Doyam, Seem and Char. He also arranged the system to sell the house, land and mortgage. He also improved the arrangements for the measurement such as Mana, Kurwa, Paathi and weights for weighing scales, Pau, Dharni used in the transaction.
  • Other Reforms:
    • He created the Gopal Dynasty genealogy to provide a thorough history of Nepal.
    • Jayasthi Malla is remembered in history as a capable leader for all of these reasons. His real name, according to the historian, was Thiti Malla. However, his name was changed to Jayasthiti Malla as a result of the widespread acclaim for his work. He is therefore regarded as a charming and liberal leader.
• Yaksha Malla
  • After Jyoti Malla passed away in 1485, Yaksha Malla and Jiva Malla shared the throne. However, Yaksha Malla eventually grew in strength. After toppling Jeeva Malla, he took over as the only ruler. He was in power for 53 years. By assuming the name "Nepal Mandleshwar," he strengthened his governmental structure. The Nepal Valley remained unified up until Yaksha Mall's rule. The city of Bhadgaon served as the capital up until that point.
  • Major Contributions of Yaksha Malla:
    • State Expansion: According to scholars, the state grew during his rule, extending from Shikarjong in the north to Tirhut in the south and from Morang in the east to Gorkha in the west.
    • He had strengthened the security of his capital by erecting a wall around the city of Bhaktapur to shield its administrative center, Bhadgaon.
    • He established the custom of appointing a South Indian Bhatta Brahmin priest to lead Pashupatinath devotion. They included the Toumadi Temple at Bhaktapur, the Dattatreya Temple, the Yakshyashowr Temple, and the Bhimnath Temple in Lalitpur. They also set up guthi territories for different gods.
  • After the death of Yaksha Mall, in 1535, his 6 sons and son-in-law were working to break the state and the Malla kingdom was divided.
• Division of the Malla Kingdom
  • Bhaktapur was the capital of the Unified Nepal Valley during the Malla period, and the kings ruled from 'Yuthinimham' and 'Tripur' palace. The palace was built as a four-sides castle, known as Chaukwanth in the local language to prevent attacks from other countries. King Yaksha Malla was the last Mall king of the organized Malla State of Nepal Valley. After the death of Yaksha Malla in 1538, his sons ruled the United Kingdoms for some time. Later Raya Malla (the eldest son) became the king of Bhatgaun, Ratna Malla (2nd son) became the king of Kantipur. Again later Patan became a separate Kingdom. This is the introduction of three kingdoms in Kathmandu valley Kantipur, Bhaktapur (Bhadgaon) and Lalitpur (Patan).
• Bharadgaon/Bhaktapur State:
  • Yaksha Mall's eldest son, Raya Malla, took over the throne after his passing. His brothers divided the huge Malla realm because of his weakness, which led to their increased ambition. Raya Malla took control of the Central Malla state after Bhaktapur fell under his control. He then ascended to the throne of Bhadgaun. The Sanga in the east, the Bagmati in the west, the Kuti in the north, and the Medini Malla woods in the south form the state's borders. About 288 years have passed since the founding of this state. Bhadgaun was incorporated into the united, vast Nepal by Prithvi Narayan Shah under the rule of King Ranjit Malla of Bhadgaun.
• The Malla Kings of Bhadgaun:
  • Raya Malla
  • Suvarna Malla
  • Pran Malla
  • Bishow Malla
  • Jagjyortir Malla
  • Narendra Malla
  • Jagat Prakash Malla
  • Jitamitra Malla
  • Bhupatindra Malla
  • Ranjit Malla

Kantipur/Kathmandu State:

Ratna Malla, the brother of Raya Malla, established the independent Kantipur state in 1541 B.S., dividing it from Bhadgaon following the death of Yaksha Malla in 1538 B.S. This state's borders were Patan to the south, Nilak Mountain to the north, Trishuli to the west, and Bagmati to the east. In the end, Prithvi Narayan Shah's victory over Jayaprakash Malla in the year 1825 B.S. brought about the unification of Nepal.

The Malla Kings of Kantipur

• Ratna Malla
• Surya Malla
• Amar Malla
• Mahendra Malla
• Shiv Singh Malla
• Lakshmi Narsingh Malla
• Pratap Mall
• Nripendra Malla
• Parthirvendra Malla
• Bhupalendra Malla
• Bhaskar Malla
• Jayanjaya Malla
• Jayaprakash Malla

Patan/Lalitpur State:

Following Yaksha Malla, his daughter inherited a portion of the empire. This state was governed by Kantipur for a considerable amount of time. Regarding the timing of the Patan state's autonomous emergence following Yaksha Malla's passing, there has been debate. After Yaksha Malla passed away, his sons Ratna, Rana, and Ram Malla shared control of Patan for a while. Lakshmi and Siddhi Narasimha, the two sons of King Harihar Singh of Kathmandu, engaged in a disagreement, which led to Siddinarsimha becoming the independent ruler of Patan. But it was independent anyway. Bhaktapur, Lamindanda, the Bagmati, and the Medini Mall forest made up this state's eastern, western, northern, and southern borders. After the surrender of six Patan chiefs before Prithvi Narayan Shah in 1825, the kingdom ended.

The Malla Kings of Patan

• Ratna Malla
• Bishnu Malla
• Narasimha Malla
• Purandarsimha Malla
• Uddhavsimha Malla
• Bhaskar Malla
• Hariharasimha Malla
• Siddhinarsimha Malla
• Srinivas Malla
• Yognarendra Malla
• Lokprakash Malla
• Indra Malla
• Mahendra Malla
• Birnarsimha Malla
• Riddhi Narasimha Malla
• Yoga Prakash Malla
• Bishnu Malla
• Rajyaprakash Malla
• Bishwajit Malla
• Jayaprakash Malla
• Ranjit Malla
• Tejarsingh Malla

      Major Contributions of Some Malla Kings

Source: Nepal Parichaya, Information and Broadcasting Department 

A  Fragmented Nepal

As soon as the large Nepalese kingdom's central authority weakened in the 10 and eleventh centuries, the fragmentation of the state got under way. Prior to unification, Nepal was split into more than 50 separate states, with roughly 46 smaller states in the west, 3 in the valley, and 3 in the east. Conflicts between kings of the same dynasty, disagreements, and a lack of effective central government led to the country's division into smaller units for the sake of the states' own self-interest. As a result, other countries were watching Nepal closely. This is a brief introduction to medieval Nepal.

• The Baisi Kingdoms/Principalities:
  • The Nagaraja-founded Khas state was first strong and powerful but finally turned out to be very feeble. The kingdom of Nepal was divided into smaller parts following the passing of Abhaya Malla in the influential Khas state in the country's western region. Karnali was made up of 22 tiny principalities, which is why it's thought to have been known as the Baisi states. Another explanation claims that several of the territories west of Jathak, including the current states of Far West, Karnali, and No. 5, include Baishthar Khash villages as a result of which they were known as Baisi Principalities. These were the Biasi states:
    • Achham
    • Khumri
    • Chhilli
    • Jahari (Rukum)
    • Jajarkot
    • Jumla
    • Doti
    • Thalahara (Bajhang)
    • Darna (Achham)
    • Dang
    • Dullu
    • Bilashpur (Dailekh)
    • Bajhang
    • Bajura
    • Rascot
    • Rukum
    • Rolpa
    • Salyan
    • Bimkot
    • Bogtan
    • Sanny
    • Malneta
• Chaubisi Principalities:
  • There were 24 principalities known as Chaubisi states in the Gandaki region following Yaksha Mall's passing. Another claim is that the states of these provinces are known as Chaubisi because 8 Panthi Magar and 6 Thar Gurugs have a settlement to the east of Jathak Mountain. Here are the Chaubisi principalities:
    • Argha
    • Khanchi
    • Isma (Gulmi)
    • Udaipur
    • Kaski
    • Garahun (Syangja)
    • Galkot (Baglung)
    • Gulmi
    • Gorkha
    • Dhor (Tanahun)
    • Tanahun
    • Dhurkot (Gulmi)
    • Nuwakot (Syanja)
    • Parbat
    • Palpa
    • Paiyu
    • Pyuthan
    • Bhirokot (Syangja)
    • Mustang
    • Musikot (Gulmi)
    • Rising (Tanahun)
    • Lamjung
    • Satyahun (Syangja) 
    • Syangja
  • Border and influence enlargement in the states of Baisi and Chubisi frequently sparked debate. Additionally, the number of states was regularly fluctuating. It was debatable whether or not to classify the Gorkha State as one of the Chaubisi Principalities. During the rule of Rajendra Lakshmi and Bahadur Shah, these Principalities were amalgamated into the Kingdom of Nepal. During the reign of Muktiyar Bhimsen Thapa, Palpa, the most powerful state in the Gandaki province, was incorporated into Nepal.
• The Sen State of Eastern Nepal:
  • Sen States are those principalities which were divided from Palpa to the east. Accordingly, Makwanpur, Bijaypur and Chaudandi are included under it.
    • Makwanpur: During the expansion of Raja Mukundsen's kingdom of Palpa, he extended his border to Kirat province in the east. His youngest son Lohai Sen established his independent state from Makwanpur to Bijayapur. The kingdom ended with the invasion of Prithvi Narayan Shah in the time of King Digbandan Sen in 1819 B.S.
    • Bijayapur: During the reign of King Shubh Sen in Makwanpur, his nephew Indrasen declared Bijaypur from the kingdom of Makwanpur as his independent state. This State was annexed in Nepal during the unification campaign of Nepal from Prithvi Narayan Shah in 1830 B.S.
    • Chaudandi: After dividing the kingdom of the Sen Dynasty in the east and increasing hunger of power of throne, the younger son of King Manisen of Makawanpur, Jagat Sen, re-fragmented Makwanpur to establish its independent state as Chaudandi. This State also was annexed into the unified Nepal during the time of Prithvi Narayan Shah during 1829 B.S. The medieval period is believed to have ended with the end of the Sen State.

Political Situation

Monarchy had a significant role during the Malla era. The Lichhivi state, which was founded on the decentralization idea, converted to a unitary government during the Malla era. The posts of Nepaleshwor, Rajarajendra, Sakalasastrasangitadividyaparsn, Kavindra, and others were conferred upon the Malla period's rulers since they were also the heads of justice, army, and administration. The King, the Council of Ministers, the district administration, the Panchayat administration, the communal arrangement, the judicial system, and the local government were all set up during the Malla administration. The local administrative structure was split into three segments by the names of Kotakilla Country, Region, and Village in addition to the center.

While the king was technically responsible for upholding the law and overseeing the administration of justice, throughout the Malla state the king was just ceremonial and weak, and during the reigns of the younger kings the Prime Minister, Kazi Chautara, held control. The lower level of government, the panchayat system, was founded. The Panchayat system was particularly active in areas pertaining to religious matters, minor conflicts, the partition of royal family property, Pati Pauwa, road building, upkeep and sanitation of temples, and construction of highways. It was common to provide funding for a small crime conviction as well as for a serious crime conviction or death sentence. Four types of penalties were especially prevalent at that time. Sentences penalty/ Wakdanda, Dhikdanda, Dnaandanda/ property punishment, Badhdanda were rampant. Similarly, Pratap Malla and some Malla rulers had made a practice of swearing oaths of Aakash Bhairav, Kotlingeswar while taking conviction with the accused. Malla rule of Nepal Valley was extremely prosperous and glorious from the point of view of social, economic and fine arts.

The Posts of Malla Rule

• Rajguru: Rajpurohit
• Army Chief: Look at the security of the state
• Umarao: Look at the state administration and the tax administration
• Storekeeper: Look at the king's store
• Taksari: Printing Coins
• Charidar: The research offer
• Kotwal: Seeing peace and security

Financial Condition/Economic Status

Comparatively speaking to the early Malla-Nepal states of the Baisi, Chaubisi, and Sen Dynasties, the valley's economic life was extremely affluent and glorious. A percentage of the created commodities were shipped to the adjacent state since, following King Jayasthi Malla's reform, the profession was caste-based and each caste developed its own profession. In the valley, King Mahendra Malla used silver Mohar whereas King Ratna Malla utilized copper money. The Valley became a trading hub during the reign of King Mahindra Malla after the Kashmiri Muslims settled there and engaged in Tibet-India trade, which is how the identities of foreign travelers were discovered.The development made by Nepal at the period in international trade must be admired given the responsibility of earning money for the Bhote and because of Nepal's contacts with the Bhote and with India. People from the Newar settlements of Sakya and Udash handled the commerce for the British Company Government. So imports from Nepal included gold, salt, sheep, Himalayan goats, etc. The protection of the wealth of the Nepalese was made by the Tibetan government at Kaji Bhim Malla's request, and it is discovered that the Malla kings received about one lakh rupees annually from India's import of Bhot's silver and gold.

The money collected from financial penalties, on excise, customs, land revenue, and financial penalties to offenders, became sources of national income in addition to promoting trade at the period. The main sources of income for the populace in then-Nepal were agriculture, livestock, trade, artisanal work, cottage industry, labor wages, and a small amount of royal services. The state's economy has been strengthened via service tax, commodity tax, land tax, cash tax, labor donation, trade with Tibet, trading with India, and regional trade and commerce. The state had successfully boosted the economy in the interim by taxing business and industry, reducing the royal family's spending, and giving land to immigrants.

Socio-cultural Conditions/Status

The Lichchhavi civilization, which had four castes and 18 subcastes before the medieval era, expanded to four races and 36 subcastes. Sub castes were gradually introduced, which led to a complicated caste system's social life and even influenced people's way of life. King Jayasthi Malla, a prominent member of the Malla dynasty and an advocate of the Varnashram Sanatan Dharma, restricted the social status in the Hindu caste system and brought the Brahmans from India to determine the caste of the Newar of the valley, Madheshi who came here, and even Buddhists were also divided into caste in accordance with the Hindu caste system. Birth, marriage, death rites, food, housing, and even clothing were regulated by caste.

From infancy until just before marriage, religious rituals and ceremonies like rice-feeding, Bratabanda, Dikshya, and others were observed in Malla society. During this time, groom-seeking was a common activity at all levels, and child marriage, remarriage, widow weddings, polygamy, and divorce traditions were all common. The upper class girls were not allowed to marry the lower class men in the culture. The practice of Sati was seen as a religious virtue at that time.

The Malla rulers lived in opulence. They were prepared to participate in festivities like dancing, Bajan, Jatra, and other celebrations. The unique festivities of the time included Bajrayogini, Bhairav, the chariots of Kumari, Krishna Jatra, Lakhe Jatra, Gaijatra, Setomachindra and Indra Jatra, Bhoto Jatra, and Ghode Jatra (Pahachare).

All three Mall states of the valley have advanced in the fields of education and literature, especially in the post-medieval era, and cultural development has been beneficial to their splendor. The Malla period was inaugurated by a number of Jatras, dance customs, national festivals, Homes, Yagya, celebrations, etc. Additionally, the theater was in a very developed and rich state since it had equal access to both music and literature. The aforementioned claims affirm that the Hindu deity is given precedence in construction; Radhakrishna Temple, Hanumandhoka Palace, Patan Durbar Gate, etc. were living proofs. The Swayambhu Chaitya Vastu demonstrates the influence of Buddhism. It is easy to assume that folk dances and musicals performed in different castes performed during different fairs have developed during the Malla period.