Male and Female sex hormones

Sex Steroids

Androgens are released from the adrenal cortex's inner layer (sex steroids). Both the female hormones (estrogen and progesterone) and the male sex hormone (testosterone) are generated. These hormones accelerate prepubertal changes and stimulate the growth of axillary and pubic hair in both boys and girls. They also increase protein synthesis, particularly in muscles.

Glucocorticoids

The primary glucocorticoid is cortisol (hydro-cortisone), but the middle layer of the adrenal cortex also produces modest amounts of corticosterone and cortisone. They control the body's metabolism and reaction to stress, making them vital to life. A negative feedback mechanism comprising the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary regulates secretion. Stress and ACTH from the anterior pituitary both stimulate it.

The body systems that the glucocorticoids have an impact on include:

• It aids in controlling the metabolism of carbohydrates.
• Glycogen is formed and stored with its assistance.
• It encourages the kidneys to reabsorb water and sodium.
• Gluconeogenesis is the process by which new glucose is produced from non-carbohydrate sources, like protein. Glucocorticoids speed up the breakdown of proteins.

Response to Stress

The body launches many immediate and long-term responses to restore any homeostasis that has been disturbed when it is threatened by an external or internal environment change. The adrenal gland and its hormones play key roles in the stress response, which is the term used to describe these reactions collectively. The instant reaction is also referred as as getting ready to "fight, fright, or flight"—fight if one believes he can defeat the challenge, or flight if it is too great. The body must react swiftly and forcefully in any situation. The body is ready for the immediate physical responses thanks to sympathetic stimulation. When a stressor lasts a long time, the anterior pituitary gland's ACTH triggers the adrenal cortex to release glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids. The effects of these hormones result in a more prolonged stress responses of different mechanisms.

Pancreas

The pancreas is a soft, spongy, grayish gland that is external to the peritoneal cavity and located posterior to the great curve of the stomach. It is 12 to 15 cm in length and weighs 60 gram. It is located in the left hypochondriac and epigastric regions of the abdominal cavity. It has a head, a body, and a tail. An endocrine and an exocrine gland, the pancreas. The pancreatic islets, which are small clusters of secretary cells dispersed throughout the remaining pancreatic tissue, provide its endocrine function (islets- small islands). The islets, often referred to as islets of Langerhans, are dispersed all over the pancreas but are concentrated predominantly in the tail area. The pancreatic islets contain three different types of cells in general:

• About 17% of pancreatic islet cells are alpha cells, which secrete glucagon.
• About 70% of the islet cells in the pancreas are beta cells, which secrete insulin.
• About 7% of pancreatic islet cells are delta cells, which produce the hormone somatostatin.

[The Langerhans islets also contain F cells or PP cells, which secrete pancreatic polypeptide. However, the precise function is unknown.]

Insulin

Insulin is secreted by the beta cells in the pancreatic islets of Langerhans. The presence of glucose stimulates insulin secretion and synthesis. Although sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system activation also triggers the creation of insulin and its subsequent release from the pancreas, the regulation of insulin is also predominantly based on negative feedback processes. By enhancing the use of carbohydrates for energy, insulin has an impact on the majority of body cells. Additionally, insulin stimulates the intake and storage of glucose as glycogen, transforms glucose in the liver to fatty acids, and promotes the transport of amino acids into the cells, reducing the breakdown of these proteins.

Glucagon

The pancreatic alpha cells generate and emit the hormone glucagon. Both the shortage of glucose associated with fasting states and sympathetic activation stimulate the release of glucagon. As an alternative, insulin secretion, eating, or the presence of hyperglycemia all block glucagon. In addition to stimulating glyconeogenesis (the production of glucose in the liver from glycogen, fats, and proteins), gluconeogenolysis (the conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver), and increased lipid breakdown, glucagon raises serum glucose and fatty acid concentrations.

Somatostatin

When blood glucose and amino acids increase after a meal, the delta cells of the islet begin to produce somatostatin. Somatostatin, a hormone, prevents the anterior pituitary from secreting GH as well as the hormones insulin and glucogon.

Thymus Gland

Above the heart in the upper region of the chest is where the thymus gland is located. It contributes to the development of specific T lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell that aids in the body's defense against foreign organisms, through the production of the hormone thymosin. This gland is large during childhood but gradually gets smaller as one gets older because it is most active before birth and in the first few years of life.

Pineal Gland

The third ventricle of the brain is home to the pineal gland, a tiny, flattened cone-shaped structure situated between the two thalamus lobes. Melatonin, a hormone, is produced by it. Pinealocytes and neuroglia in large numbers make up the gland. The release of specific chemicals from the hypothalamus is thought to be controlled by melatonin or another hormone from the pineal, which may also control the pituitary's secretion of gonadotropins. Animal studies have shown that the amount of light in the environment affects how much melatonin is produced; more melatonin is released in darkness and less in bright sunlight.

Sex Glands

In addition to being vital endocrine organs, the sex glands—the female ovaries and the male testes—produce the sex cells. Both the maintenance of the reproductive system after full development has been reached as well as the development of sexual characteristics, which typically appear in early adolescence, depend on the hormones produced by these organs.

Testes

The oval gland known as the testes can be found in the scortum, a skin pouch situated between the upper thighs. Testosterone and inhibin are the two hormones that the testes generate and emit.

• The growth and operation of the male reproductive system are regulated by the steroid hormone testosterone, also known as androgen, which is released by interstitial cells of the testes. The primary sex characteristics are those parts of the body that are directly involved in reproduction. Additionally, testosterone is the cause of male secondary sex traits like a deep voice and pubic and facial hair.
• Increased testosterone serves as the stimulation for the release of inhibin, which is produced by the sustentacular cells of the testes. Inhibin has the ability to lessen the anterior pituitary gland's production of FHS. The relationship between inhibin, testosterone and the anterior pituitary hormone maintains spermatogenesis at a constant rate.

Ovaries

The female pelvic cavity is where the ovaries are situated. It makes a number of steroid hormones, including progesterone and estrogen, as well as inhibin.

• The follicular cell of the ovary secretes estrogen, which is a hormone. FHS causes the anterior pituitary gland to secrete this hormone in a more active manner. Estrogens encourage the growth of the mammary glands, the start of menstruation, and the development and operation of the reproductive organs. They also help to develop the secondary sex characteristics that are unique to women.
• Progesterone: The second hormone made by female sex glands, progesterone, aids in the typical progression of pregnancy.
• Inhibin: The corpus luteum secretes inhibin, another hormone. The anterior pituitary gland's and GnRH's secretions are reduced as a result.

Local hormones

Local hormones are those that have an effect on the same region where they are secreted or nearby. Endocrine hormones are secreted in one location but carry out their functions in a different, distant location. Local hormones are often released inactively and are turned on by certain circumstances or substances. The crucial hormones include:

• Prostaglandins and hormones connected to them: Eicosanoids refer to a group of hormones and prostaglandins that are produced from arachidonic acid.
• Prostaglandins: In addition to increasing cellular permeability, vasodilatation, and bronchodilation in blood arteries, they also decrease the activity of inflammatory cells.
• Thromboxanes: They constrict blood vessels, aid in hemostasis by hastening platelet aggregation, and hasten the development of blood clots.
• Prostacyclin: It dilates the blood vessels and prevents platelet aggregation.
• Leukotrienes: These chemicals increase vascular permeability, bronchiolar and arteriolar constriction, and the attraction of neutrophils and eosinophils to the site of inflammation.
• Lipoxins: Lipoxin expands tiny blood arteries and prevents killer T cells from doing any cytotoxic damage.
• The chemical compound serotonin is also referred to as 5-hydroxytryptamine. It is an inhibitory chemical that blocks pain impulses in the posterior gray horn of the spinal cord, lowers mood and induces sleep, and constricts blood vessels.
• Histamine: This chemical is an excitatory neurotransmitter. Histamine secreted from tissues dilates blood vessels and increases the permeability of capillaries, allowing fluid and plasma proteins from the blood to enter the injured tissues. Therefore, local edema arises as a result of fluid with proteins building up. Histamine makes the GI tract more motile.
• Acetylcholine: It activates smooth muscles in the GI tract, urinary tract, and skeletal muscles, produces excitatory function of synapses by opening sodium channels, inhibits cardiac function, and causes vasodilatation.